The Australian landmass has at times been connected by an ‘island/land-bridge’ with continental Eurasia. Archaeological records of early habitation date back to more than 60,000 years with recent discoveries possibly taking this to over 100,000 years. A very stable network of hunter-gatherer societies developed, uniquely adjusted to surviving in the often harsh local natural environment. Estimates place the indigenous population at about one million at the time of European contact. European and indigenous people alike suffered during colonisation with conflict, massacres, and land acquisition practices dispossessing the indigenous population. The remnants of the indigenous groups survived in the less-hospitable regions of the continent. Following independence, various policies for governing and administering the indigenous groups were implemented, many with disastrous results. Modern Australia has a full spectrum of levels of racial integration from full involvement in modern western lifestyle to near-traditional life in remote Aboriginal communities following largely tribal ways. The influence of western commodities, such as drugs and alcohol, combined with poor policy development and implementation has led to grave social problems within this ethnic group and is a continuing issue for this nation.

The colonists brought with them an industrious approach to trying to tame the land. The indigenous society had learnt to live in harmony with the land and generally held the belief that the people belonged to the land; whereas non-indigenous Australians pursued a policy and practice of the land belonging to the people. Early success with clearing and sheep farming, then the discovery of gold in the 1850’s, led to rapid economic expansion. Due to low rainfall and climactic patterns, the vast majority of the population live on a thin strip of the continent on the east coast stretching the full north-south extent within 100 kilometres of the coast.

Australia was actively involved in both World Wars I and II and later regional conflicts. Its soldiers have demonstrated great bravery and ingenuity in many fields of battle, believed to have emanated from a society struggling to survive in a harsh environment. Darwin was the most bombed city in the Pacific during World War II, but it was never occupied by the Japanese. Australians have a reputation for inventiveness and creative thought and have contributed greatly to the development of modern dry-land farming practices and technologies.

Forward-thinking policies of governments in the 1980s and 90s carefully connected Australia’s economy to the global environment. However, the nation is now also vulnerable to international monetary and trade problems. Some of the greatest challenges facing modern Australia relate to effects of affluence on health and lifestyle, changing balance of extremist minorities within its own population and potential international tensions within the Pacific and South-east Asian region.

Modern Australia has a highly urbanised society. Western lifestyle advantages have brought many changes to daily life. Education is freely available and tertiary education is generally achievable for any member of society with the aptitude and willingness to apply themselves.