Country Profile: Australia

Geography

Area	7.7 million sq km (2.9 million sq miles) land: 7,682,300 sq km water: 58,920 sq km note: includes Lord Howe Island and Macquarie Island
Capital (June 2009 est.- Australian Bureau of Statistics)	Canberra(403,118)
Largest city (June 2009 est.- Australian Bureau of Statistics)	Sydney (4,504,469)
Other large cities (June 2009 est.- Australian Bureau of Statistics)	Melbourne (3,995,537); Brisbane (2,004,26); Perth, (1,658,992); Adelaide (1,187,466)
Climate	Generally arid to semiarid; temperate in south and east; tropical in north. Terrain: mostly low plateau with deserts; fertile plain in southeast.
Time Difference	UTC+10 (15 hours ahead of Washington, DC during Standard Time). Daylight saving time: +1hr, begins first Sunday in October; ends first Sunday in April. Note: Australia is divided into three time zones.

People

Nationality	noun: Australian(s) adjective: Australian
Population (CIA-July 2010 est.)	21,515,754
Annual population growth rate (CIA-2010 est.)	1.171%
Age Structure (2010 est.)	0-14 years: 18.6% (male 2,026,975/female 1,923,828) 15-64 years: 67.9% (male 7,318,743/female 7,121,613) 65 years and over: 13.5% (male 1,306,329/female 1,565,153)
Urbanization	urban population: 89% of total population (2008) rate of urbanization: 1.2% annual rate of change (2005-10 est.)
Ethnic groups	white 92%, Asian 7%, aboriginal and other 1%
Languages (2006 Census)	English 78.5%, Chinese 2.5%, Italian 1.6%, Greek 1.3%, Arabic 1.2%, Vietnamese 1%, other 8.2%, unspecified 5.7%
Religion (2006 Census)	Catholic 25.8%, Anglican 18.7%, Uniting Church 5.7%, Presbyterian and Reformed 3%, Eastern Orthodox 2.7%, other Christian 7.9%, Buddhist 2.1%, Muslim 1.7%, other 2.4%, unspecified 11.3%, none 18.7%
Life expectancy (2010 est.)	total population: 81.72 years male: 79.33 years female: 84.25 years
Infant mortality rate (2010 est. - CIA)	total: 4.67 deaths/1,000 live births male: 5 deaths/1,000 live births female: 4.33 deaths/1,000 live births

Government

Government type	federal parliamentary democracy and a Commonwealth realm
Head of State	The Head of State: HM Queen Elizabeth II, represented by the Governor-General HE Ms Quentin Bryce Head of Government: Prime Minister The Hon Ms Julia Gillard
Independence	1 January 1901 (from the federation of UK colonies)
Constitution	9 July 1900 (Passed by the British Parliament and effective on 1 January 1901)
Legal system	based on English common law; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations; accepts International Criminal Court jurisdiction with conditions
Suffrage	18 years of age; universal and compulsory
Administrative divisions	6 states and 2 territories; Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales, Northern Territory*, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, Western Australia

Education

Literacy (age 15 and over can read & write) (2003 est.)	total population: 99% male: 99% female: 99%
School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education) (2008)	total: 21 years male: 20 years female: 21 years
Years compulsory	to age 16 in all states and territories except New South Wales and the Northern Territory where it is 15, and Western Australia where it is 17. (starting at age 5)
Primary to secondary transition rate (UIS estimation 2002)	100%
Female Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) - Tertiary Education as a % for School year ending 2008	87%
Male Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) - Tertiary Education as a % for School year ending 2008	67%
Education expenditure	4.9% of GDP (2008) 14% of total government expenditure (2006)
Distribution(%) of public expenditure per level (2010)	pre-primary 1% primary 34% secondary 41% tertiary 24% unknown 1%
Researchers per 1,000,000 inhabitants (FTE) (2006)	4 224
Expenditure on R&D as a % of GDP (2006)	2.06%
Percentage distribution of gross domestic expenditure on research and development by source	Business 58.3% Government 37.3% From abroad 2.4% Private non-profit 1.8% Higher Education 0.1%

ICT

Telephones - main lines in use (2009)	9.02 million
Telephones - mobile cellular (2009)	24.22 million
Mobile cellular subscriptions per 100 inhabitants(2009)	113.75
Broadband Internet subscribers per 100 inhabitants (2009)	Fixed 24.42 Mobile 57.67
Telephone system (2007)	General assessment: excellent domestic and international service. Domestic: domestic satellite system; significant use of radiotelephone in areas of low population density; rapid growth of mobile telephones. landing point for the SEA-ME-WE-3 optical telecommunications submarine cable with links to Asia, the Middle East, and Europe; the Southern Cross fiber optic submarine cable provides links to New Zealand and the United States; satellite earth stations - 19 (10 Intelsat - 4 Indian Ocean and 6 Pacific Ocean, 2 Inmarsat - Indian and Pacific Ocean regions, 2 Globalstar, 5 other)
International dialling code	+61
Internet domain	.au
Internet hosts (2010)	13.361 million
Internet users (2008)	15.17 million
Internet users per 100 inhabitants (2009)	74.25
Computers per 100 inhabitants	78.14
TV sets per 100 people	N/A

Overview

Australia is a Federal Constitutional Monarchy. As the world’s largest island continent, it is situated between the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean. While geographically located adjacent to South-east Asia, Australia has strong European roots and has a modern western style society. With a land surface area of approximately 7,700,000 square kilometres, it supports a population of almost 22,000,000 people.

The history of Australia incorporates a long early period of inhabitation by the indigenous Aboriginal peoples and later colonization by Britain in the 18^th century. Australia developed from its colonial period to Independence in 1901. With a long history of stable government, Australia has developed into a thriving modern nation with a diverse economy and high living standards. Voting is universal and compulsory for all persons over 18 years of age.

Major exports are minerals and energy, which have supported rapid recovery from the global financial crisis of 2008. Notably, Australia’s four major banks are rated in the top eleven internationally, demonstrating the strength in this sector compared with similar-sized nations.

English is the official and commonly used language. Australia’s population has largely descended from immigrants from the colonial, post-war and modern periods. It is a multi-cultural community that in recent times has been much more accepting of its multi-culturalism. While statistically the majority of inhabitants denote themselves as having a link to a Christian church (Roman Catholic, Anglican, various other denominations), church attendances are quite small reflecting only a nominal relationship for many of the inhabitants. In contrast to this, there are growing fundamental minorities of both Christian and Muslim persuasion. Both of whom are active in the provision of education. Relationships between the various groups are very positive on the whole, but some tensions develop, as demonstrated by the Cronulla race riots of 2007, when tensions were expressed as acts of group violence.

While Australia is the world’s driest continent, with vast tracts classed as desert, there is a substantial and highly efficient agricultural sector whose production is largely dependent upon rainfall in specific production areas. The nation has vast reserves of many different mineral types, uranium, coal and natural gas, all of which form part of a very substantial export program. Australia is a large consumer and net importer of manufactured products of all categories. Australia has recently developed in a regional provider of tertiary education, which has grown to be one of the larger export earners ($A5,000,000,000 in 2005), although strong currency values are posing significant problems for this sector.

Brief History

The Australian landmass has at times been connected by an ‘island/land-bridge’ with continental Eurasia. Archaeological records of early habitation date back to more than 60,000 years with recent discoveries possibly taking this to over 100,000 years. A very stable network of hunter-gatherer societies developed, uniquely adjusted to surviving in the often harsh local natural environment. Estimates place the indigenous population at about one million at the time of European contact. European and indigenous people alike suffered during colonisation with conflict, massacres, and land acquisition practices dispossessing the indigenous population. The remnants of the indigenous groups survived in the less-hospitable regions of the continent. Following independence, various policies for governing and administering the indigenous groups were implemented, many with disastrous results. Modern Australia has a full spectrum of levels of racial integration from full involvement in modern western lifestyle to near-traditional life in remote Aboriginal communities following largely tribal ways. The influence of western commodities, such as drugs and alcohol, combined with poor policy development and implementation has led to grave social problems within this ethnic group and is a continuing issue for this nation.

The colonists brought with them an industrious approach to trying to tame the land. The indigenous society had learnt to live in harmony with the land and generally held the belief that the people belonged to the land; whereas non-indigenous Australians pursued a policy and practice of the land belonging to the people. Early success with clearing and sheep farming, then the discovery of gold in the 1850’s, led to rapid economic expansion. Due to low rainfall and climactic patterns, the vast majority of the population live on a thin strip of the continent on the east coast stretching the full north-south extent within 100 kilometres of the coast.

Australia was actively involved in both World Wars I and II and later regional conflicts. Its soldiers have demonstrated great bravery and ingenuity in many fields of battle, believed to have emanated from a society struggling to survive in a harsh environment. Darwin was the most bombed city in the Pacific during World War II, but it was never occupied by the Japanese. Australians have a reputation for inventiveness and creative thought and have contributed greatly to the development of modern dry-land farming practices and technologies.

Forward-thinking policies of governments in the 1980s and 90s carefully connected Australia’s economy to the global environment. However, the nation is now also vulnerable to international monetary and trade problems. Some of the greatest challenges facing modern Australia relate to effects of affluence on health and lifestyle, changing balance of extremist minorities within its own population and potential international tensions within the Pacific and South-east Asian region.

Modern Australia has a highly urbanised society. Western lifestyle advantages have brought many changes to daily life. Education is freely available and tertiary education is generally achievable for any member of society with the aptitude and willingness to apply themselves.

Governance

Australia is governed through a federated bicameral parliamentary system. There is separation between the executive, judicial and legislative arms of government. The two-party preferred electoral system, based on the Westminster system of government, has proved to be extremely stable and robust, with elections held every three years. The country is among the most safe and secure in the world as a travel destination, despite the dangers and harshness of the natural environment. The government is led by the Prime Minister, supported by a cabinet of elected ministers. Corruption, when discovered, is not tolerated as an accepted activity and a strong value of fairness and integrity still epitomises the broad expectations of the populace.

Education System

Education in Australia began originally as classes provided by church representatives to the children of both convicts and early settlers during early colonisation. Later, the government took responsibility for educating children and a parallel system of public/private education developed. During the 1960s, following agitation from the Roman Catholic Church and their schools, a policy of part funding for private schools developed. Today, this has evolved to a level of government funding roughly equal to the needs and financial resources of individual schools. It is a sometimes contentious and complex situation, which is reputed to have saved the Australian tax-payer tens of billions of dollars over the five decades if it had provided directly for the needs of all students. Currently, nearly one third of all students attend a non-government operated school. There is a great deal of cooperation between the sectors and students and staff are free to move between the sectors and regularly do so.

Education is compulsory from ages 5-16 with some minor variations between the states. The model is generally a 1-7-6-3 structure, although state differences are apparent.

a) School education

Pre-Primary Level

Pre-primary education in both government and privately operated organizations is available to children between the ages of 3-5 for a period of 1-2 years. Activities are largely based around social adjustment in preparation for school and children learning through play and some direct instruction.

Primary Level

The first seven/eight years of formal education is within a primary school model covering grades 1-6/7 depending upon in which state it is offered. A national curriculum is replacing the various state-based models, covering areas of literacy, numeracy, science, studies of society and civics, physical education, ICT, creative arts and music, problem solving and collaboration skills.

In 2010, Australia’s bureau of statistics recorded 6,357 primary schools.

Secondary Level

Secondary education is provided through both private and government-operated schools. The structure of these schools differs greatly in the way year levels and subgroups are organized. There is a growing trend for provision of specialist structures to meet the changing needs of adolescents between the ages of 10-14. The national curriculum (ANTAR) gives fairly uniform requirements for the different types of subjects undertaken at secondary levels. However, each provider has a great deal of latitude upon how they will achieve the learning outcomes so that each school can have its own unique ‘flavour’. There is an increasing trend for government schools to devolve more authority to leadership at each educational site, a situation already enjoyed within the non-government school network.

Australia’s Bureau of Statistics recorded 1,409 secondary schools and 1,286 combined primary and secondary schools in 2010.

Non-Government Schools

Nearly one third of all students attend non-government schools in Australia. There is a high level of competition between the schools of all descriptions, both government and non-government. Historically, Yr 12 attainment levels were published for school comparison. However, recently enacted legislation to make student achievement levels publicly available through websites, such as ‘Myschool’, has extended this freedom of information. Contention exists through measuring strategies that have produced some interesting anomalies. Work is being done to address these issues and resolve them.

1,708 Catholic Schools and 1,017 Independent Schools were recorded by the Australian Bureau of Statistics in 2010.

b) Vocational education and training (VET)

Australia has a wide network of Technical and Further Education (TAFE) colleges and newly created regional Australian Technical Colleges who specialize in vocational training. This has been a response to Australia’s chronic lack of qualified trades personnel in most trade areas. During the 1980s and 90s, many Australian states closed local technical schools through a process of amalgamations with nearby secondary colleges in a bid to reduce operating costs. History has shown the grave error of this policy that has led to Australia having to import large numbers of skilled trades people to meet demand. Recent times has seen an increased linkage between vocational certificates, diplomas and degree courses offered by the current TAFEs and colleges, where pathways have been created to allow students to upgrade trade diplomas into degree courses through further study.

c) Higher education

Pre-Tertiary and Tertiary Education

Tertiary education in Australia is largely funded by government. However, in recent decades there has been a trend of an increasing proportion of tuition costs being borne by students. This is a contentious issue with differing opinions. Students engaged in tertiary education may also be eligible for some government living support, dependent upon a means test of the family. This means test significantly disadvantages those students who originate from rural areas but need to relocate to attend a university and therefore cannot live at home. All students wishing to enter a tertiary institution are required to complete Yr 12 and achieve a Australian Tertiary Admissions Rank (ATAR), formerly known as the Tertiary Entrance Rank (TER). This enables students to apply for suitable courses anywhere within the nation.

The Commonwealth Government partially funds student enrolment in the following higher education providers. These include universities and other higher education providers:

Australian Catholic University (ACU), NSW (both in Sydney): North Sydney (MacKillop), Strathfield (Mount St. Mary); Qld: Brisbane (McAuley); ACT: Canberra (Signadou); Vic: Ballarat (Aquinas); Melbourne (St Patrick's).

Australian Capital Territory

Australian Defence Force Academy, Canberra

Australian National University, Canberra

University of Canberra, Canberra

New South Wales

Charles Sturt University, Bathurst, Wagga Wagga, Albury, Dubbo, Manly, Orange, Canberra

Charles Sturt University Study Centres, Sydney

Macquarie University, Sydney

Southern Cross University, >Coffs Harbour, Lismore, Tweed Heads

University of New England, Armidale

University of New South Wales, Sydney, Canberra,

University of Newcastle, Ourimbah, Port Macquarie, Sydney, Singapore

University of Sydney, Sydney

University of Technology, Sydney

University of Western Sydney

University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Shoalhaven, Batemans Bay, Loftus, Moss Vale, Dubai

Victoria

Charles Sturt University Study Centres, Melbourne

Deakin University, Geelong, Melbourne, Warrnambool

La Trobe University, Melbourne, Albury-Wodonga, Bendigo, Beechworth, Shepparton, Mildura, Mount Buller (former campus)

Monash University, Melbourne (Clayton, Caulfield, Berwick, Peninsula, Parkville, Churchill (Gippsland) , Malaysia, South Africa

Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Melbourne (CBD, Brunswick,Bundoora), Vietnam (Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City)

Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne (Hawthorn, Lilydale, Prahran, Wantirna, Croydon), Malaysia (Sarawak)

Central Queensland University, Melbourne

University of Ballarat, Ballarat, Ararat, Horsham, Stawell

University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Parkville,

Victoria University, Melbourne

Queensland

Bond University, Gold Coast

Central Queensland University ("CQUniversity"), Bundaberg, Gladstone, Mackay, Rockhampton and Brisbane.

Griffith University, Brisbane, Logan, Gold Coast and South Bank (Queensland Conservatorium and Queensland College of Art)

James Cook University, Townsville, Brisbane, Singapore and Cairns

Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane

University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba

University of the Sunshine Coast, Sunshine Coast

Western Australia

Curtin University, Perth, Sydney and Malaysia (Sarawak), Singapore

Edith Cowan University, Perth and Bunbury

Murdoch University, Perth and Mandurah

University of Notre Dame Australia, Fremantle, Broome and Sydney

University of Western Australia, Perth and Albany

South Australia

Carnegie Mellon University, Heinz College Australia, Adelaide

Cranfield University, Defence College of Management and Technology, Adelaide

University College London, School of Energy and Resources, Adelaide

Flinders University, Adelaide

University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Waite and Roseworthy

University of South Australia, Adelaide , Whyalla and Mt.Gamber

Tasmania

University of Tasmania, Hobart and Launceston

Northern Territory

Charles Darwin University, Darwin and Alice Springs (formerly Northern Territory University)

Other self-accrediting higher education institutions

These institutions are for nearly all practical purposes, universities. However, they are deemed not to be because their academic focus is too narrow:

Australian Maritime College, Launceston (associated with the University of Tasmania)

Batchelor Institute of Indigenous Tertiary Education, Northern Territory: Alice Springs, Batchelor, Darwin, Tennant Creek, Nhulunbuy, Katherine, Yarrabah and Western Australia: Kununurra

Melbourne College of Divinity, Melbourne (associated with the University of Melbourne)

State and territory-accredited higher education institutions

Government- Specialist

Victorian College of the Arts, Melbourne (associated with the University of Melbourne)

National Art School, Sydney

National Institute of Dramatic Art, Sydney

Australian Film, Television and Radio School, Sydney

Arts Academy (associated with the University of Ballarat)

Government - General

Box Hill Institute of TAFE, Melbourne

Canberra Institute of Technology, Canberra

Gordon Institute of TAFE, Geelong

Monash College, Melbourne (associated with Monash University)

Northern Melbourne Institute of Technology, Melbourne

TAFE South Australia

Christian - National

Australian College of Theology and affiliates, Sydney, Brisbane, Melbourne, Adelaide and Perth

ICI College completely through correspondence via Tasmania

Institute for the Nations - Australia, Youth With A Mission affiliate registered in ACT

Tabor College, Adelaide, Hobart, Melbourne, Perth and Sydney

Australian Capital Territory

Unknown

New South Wales

Avondale College, Cooranbong (New South Wales)

Campion College Australia, Sydney

College of Christian Higher Education, Sydney

Lois Reid College of Counselling Studies, Tamworth

Moore Theological College

Sydney College of Divinity, Sydney

Wesley Institute for Ministry and the Arts, Sydney

Sydney Missionary and Bible College

South Australia

Adelaide College of Divinity (associated with Flinders University)

Adelaide College of Ministries

Australian Lutheran College, Adelaide

Bible College of South Australia, Adelaide

IIBIT,Adelaide

Tasmania

Worldview Centre for Inter-Cultural Studies, Hobart

Queensland

Brisbane College of Theology

Christian Heritage College, Brisbane

Malyon College, Brisbane

Nazerene Theological College, Brisbane

Victoria

Catholic Theological College, Melbourne

Harvest Bible College, Melbourne

John Paul II Institute for Marriage and Family, Melbourne

Kingsley College, Melbourne

Western Australia

Harvest West Bible College, Perth

Perth Bible College

Other private - Specialist

Australian Academy of Design, Melbourne

Adelaide Central School of Art

Australian College of Natural Medicine, Brisbane, Perth and Melbourne

Australian College of Physical Education, Sydney

Australian Guild of Music Education, Melbourne

Australian Institute of Public Safety, Melbourne

Australian Institute of Music, Sydney

Australian International Hotel School, Canberra

Australian National College, Melbourne

Careers Australia College of Healthcare, Adelaide, Brisbane

Billy Blue College of Design, Sydney

Blue Mountains International Hotel Management School, Leura

Brandon Raynor's School of Massage and Natural Therapies, Sydney, Brisbane, Melbourne, Adelaide, Perth, Gold Coast

Earth Institute, Sydney

International College of Hotel Management, Adelaide

Invisage, Brisbane

Jansen Newman Institute, Sydney

Jschool: Journalism Education & Training

Kaylene Kranz and Associates, Adelaide

Kollel Beth Hatalmud Yehuda Fishman Institute, Melbourne

Le Cordon Bleu Australia, Adelaide

Marcus Oldham College, Geelong

National Institute of Health Sciences, Canberra

Nature Care College, Sydney

Oceania Polytechnic Institute of Education, Melbourne

QANTM, Brisbane

Raffles College of Design and Commerce, Sydney

SAE Institute, Sydney, Byron Bay, Melbourne, Brisbane, Adelaide, Perth

Southern School of Natural Therapies, Melbourne

Taylors College, Sydney, Melbourne, Perth

William Blue College of Hospitality and Tourism, Sydney

General

Alexander Institute of Technology, Perth

Gibaran Learning Group (incorporating Australian Institute of Business Administration, Entrepreneurship Institute Australia, and Tourism Institute Australia), Adelaide

Holmes Institute, Melbourne

ILM Australia, None. Although registered in Australia, it only delivers courses outside the country

Navitas World, Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Adelaide and various places in other countries

Open Polytechnic of New Zealand, via an affiliate in Melbourne

Overview of Distance Education

Australia has a long and successful tradition of distance education. Even before World War II, distance education had become part of the educational landscape. By the early years of the 20^th century, it was common for children in isolated parts of the country to learn through correspondence courses. The University of Queensland (UQ) established its Department of Correspondence Studies in 1911, while TAFE Colleges in the different states had distance education programs in place by the late 1930s.

These early experiments laid the foundation for growth in the decades after World War II. In 1950, the School of the Air began offering lessons to school-age students in remote areas using short-wave radio. The creation of University of New England (UNE) in 1954 led to the development of the influential dual-mode or “Australian model” of distance education. The distinguishing feature of the dual-mode approach was that distance and on-campus students were taught to an identical curriculum by the same teaching staff and sat the same examinations.

The dual-model approach was widely adopted by Australian universities over the next two decades. By the early 1980s, 48 universities and colleges of advanced education across Australia had distance education programs. The Australian experience also provided a model for new distance education institutions in different parts of the world. The influence of the Australian model was greatest in the Pacific area, shaping the distance learning programs offered by universities in New Zealand, Papua New Guinea and Fiji.

There is a wide range of providers offering distance education programs from kindergarten to secondary school level. The peak organisation for primary and secondary school distance education is the Australasian Association of Distance Education Schools (AADES). The following Australian DE providers are members of the AADES:

Victoria

Distance Education Centre Victoria

Victoria School of Languages

Queensland

Brisbane School of Distance Education

Cairns School of Distance Education

Capricornia School of Distance Education

Charleville School of Distance Education

Charters Towers School of Distance Education

Longreach School of Distance Education

Mount Isa School of The Air

Queensland LOTE Centre

South Australia

Open Access College

New South Wales

Rural and Distance Education

Dubbo School of Distance Education

Sir Eric Woodward Memorial School

Camden Haven High School

Karabar High School

Open High School

Southern Cross K-12 School

Sydney Distance Education High School

Bourke Walgett School of Distance Education (Bourke Campus)

Bourke Walgett School of Distance Education (Walgett Campus)

Broken Hill School of the Air (Broken Hill Campus)

Broken Hill School of the Air (Hay Campus)

North East Public School of Distance Education (Port Macquarie Campus)

North East Public School of Distance Education (Casino Campus)

Queanbeyan Public School

Sydney Distance Education Primary School

Tibooburra Outback School of the Air

South Australia

Distance Education Academy

Western Australia

Schools of Isolated and Distance Education

Carnarvon School of the Air

Kalgoorlie School of the Air

Kimberley School of the Air

Meekatharra School of the Air

Port Hedland School of the Air

Northern Territory

NT Distance Learning Service

NT Virtual School

Northern Territory Open Education Centre

Alice Springs School of the Air

Katherine School of the Air

These institutions teach according to the relevant State or Territory curriculum using a range of distance education approaches. Typical modes include HF-radio, correspondence, CD-ROM/DVD or online delivery. Many institutions provide courses in a range of formats.

The use of distance education in the delivery of TVET is a well-established practice in Australia, dating back to the pre-World War II period. The number of distance education providers in the sector that make use of distance education, online or blended learning approaches is probably in the hundreds. Only a few of the major providers can be covered here.

The State-based TAFE systems remain the major providers of distance education-based TVET. The largest Australian provider of distance education programs in the TVET field is the Open Training and Education Network (OTEN). OTEN is part of TAFE - Western Sydney Institute and functions is a specialist distance education and open learning institute within TAFE NSW. OTEN has currently 60,000 students undertaking over 250 courses. The Network has students throughout NSW, interstate and overseas. OTEN students gain a TAFE NSW qualification, recognised nationally as part of the AQF (Australian Qualifications Framework). OTEN provides online certificate to advanced diploma level courses in the fields of Agriculture, Horticulture & the Environment; Building & Construction; Business & Office Skills; Communication; Community Services; Computing & Information Technology; Engineering; English Language; Management & Human Resources; Property, Real Estate & Valuation; Workplace Training & Assessing.

Australia universities have been a leader in the provision of distance education to serve regional communities. A number of regional universities specialise in distance education and have the majority of their students studying through this mode.

In terms of distance enrolments, the major Australian distance education universities are:

Charles Sturt University

University of Southern Queensland (USQ)

University of New England (UNE)

Deakin University

Monash University

Central Queensland University

Southern Cross University

University of South Australia

Queensland University of Technology

University of New South Wales

All of these institutions have adopted e-learning approaches and are moving progressively towards the complete online delivery of distance education. At a number of institutions, the replacement of printed materials by CD-ROMs containing learning resources and support materials has been an intermediate step before the transition of all distance education teaching to an online platform, such as Moodle.

All of the major regional distance education providers offer a wide scope of courses through distance education, including foundation, undergraduate and postgraduate programs. The Open Universities Australia consortium has also emerged as major provider of online distance education programs (see below).

Administration and Finance

The Australian Government has significant financial and policy responsibility for higher education, while state and territory governments retain major legislative responsibility. At the national level higher education policies and programs are administered by the Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations – DEEWR. The provision of government funding is outlined in the Higher Education Support Act 2003.

Australian students can undertake higher education studies at an approved institution as either a Commonwealth support student or a fee-paying student. Students have to pay for their tertiary education.

Commonwealth support places (formerly known as HECS) are made possible through the financial contribution to higher education providers by the Australian Government.

The Australian Government contributes about one-third of government funding for vocational education and training, with the other two-thirds coming from state and territory governments.

Higher Education Reforms

On 4 March 2009, the Australian Government announced a public commitment to the rapid expansion of student numbers and to improved access for students from low socio-economic status (SES) backgrounds. The Commonwealth’s goals include:

40% of 25–34 year olds to attain a qualification at bachelor level or above by 2025; and
20% of higher education enrolments at undergraduate level should be people from low SES backgrounds by 2020.

Another aspect of the Government’s reform program is the introduction of mission-based compacts. Every Australian public university will negotiate annual compacts with the Commonwealth. These will contain agreed targets, achievement of which will trigger reward payments.

Also, as part of its package of reforms, the Commonwealth is moving towards a deregulated, student-centred funding model. From 2012, Australian public universities will be funded on the basis of actual enrolments. There will be no limits on the number of students that each institution will be able to admit and institutions will be able to set their own entry standards. The Commonwealth will provide funding for every eligible university student accepted into an eligible course at a public university.

Future Direction of Tertiary Education

The new decade is expected to see a rapid increase in student enrolments as a consequence of deregulation. However, the costs and benefits of this expansion will not be distributed evenly across the higher education sector. The new demand driven system will see a shift of students and funding toward those institutions most willing and best able to attract students. Those institutions unable to defend their market share are expected to lose funding. This pressure will be greatest in the case of regional institutions, which have relied on regulation to help protect their market share in the past. Many of these institutions, which include the major distance education providers, will be under pressure to reduce standards in order to increase or maintain student recruitment. At the other end of the spectrum, many of the major metropolitan universities are expected to resist the trend towards mass education. It is predicted that these institutions will position themselves as high quality providers, reducing undergraduate intakes in favour of postgraduate students. It is for this reason that some observers have referred to the likely emergence of a new binary system.

Information and Communications Technology Initiatives

Australia has a modern, deregulated communications infrastructure, with high levels of Internet penetration, computer ownership and broadband access. This situation is likely to improve still further as a result of the National Broadband Network (NBN). The NBN initiative will involve the laying of fibre optic cabling to connect 93% of Australian homes, schools and businesses. This network will provide broadband speeds of up to 100 megabits per second (Mbps). The remaining 7% of Australians will be connected by means of high speed wireless and satellite technologies delivering peak speeds of at least 12 Mbps or more. As a result of the NBN, the use of IT within Australian education is expected to increase dramatically over the next five years.

a) Information society strategy

The Australian Information and Communications Technology in Education Committee (AICTEC) is a national, cross-sectoral committee responsible for providing advice to all Australian Ministers of Education and Training on the economic and effective utilisation of information and communications technologies in Australian education and training and on implementation of the Digital Education Revolution.

An ICT policy and organisational framework exists for the use of Information and Communication Technologies in Australian Education Training. A Joint Ministerial Statement on Information and Communications Technologies in Australian Education and Training: 2008-2011 was endorsed by MCEETYA and the Ministerial Council for Vocational and Technical Education (MCVTE) in June 2008.

b) Major e-learning initiatives

There have been many e-learning initiatives in Australia. One example is the Australian Flexible Learning Framework , an e-learning strategy for the vocational education and training (VET) sector that provides essential e-learning infrastructure and expertise needed to respond to the challenges of a modern economy and the training needs of Australian businesses and workers. The Framework was launched as a strategy in 2000, in response to information and communication technology (ICT) developments in workplaces and society. The Australian Government and all states and territories agreed to work together nationally to advance the use of e-learning in VET. The 2008-2011 Framework Strategy focussed on embedding e-learning in registered training organisations (RTOs), business and industry, opening up more than $7 million in funding opportunities.

Recent research shows that 36% of all VET activity in RTOs now formally involves e-learning, compared to just 3-4% in 2003-2004. Research also confirms that 91% of students and 88% of teachers and trainers now use e-learning as part of their VET experience.

c) Benchmarking e-learning

Australian interest in benchmarking online and distance learning initially lagged far behind trends in the United Kingdom and Europe. In more recent years, an Australian benchmarking scheme has been created. This is the ACODE benchmarking scheme for e-learning, under development by the Australasian Council on Open, Distance and E-Learning. The ACODE scheme has been trialled at a number of Australian universities since 2004. Another scheme which has been piloted in Australia is the E-Learning Maturity Model (eMM), originally developed in New Zealand. The eMM (now available as eMM V2) was originally developed after testing in Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom.

d) Support for OER

At present, support for OER within Australia is at an early stage. Only one Australian university has a formal OER strategy. This is the University of South Queensland, which joined the OpenCourseWare (OCW) Consortium in 2007. At present, the USQ OCW site offers sample courses from each of USQ’s five faculties and also courses from its Tertiary Preparation Program. Another Australian university with a growing stake in OER is the University of New England, which has received funding from the Australian Learning and Teaching Council to develop a Feasibility Protocol to enable the wider adoption of OER within the Australian higher education sector.

e) Government entities

Only the main agencies are listed here.

Commonwealth

Australian Education International (AEI)

Australian Learning and Teaching Council (ALTC)

Australian Research Council (ARC)

Australian Universities Quality Assurance Agency (AQUA)

Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations (DEEWR)

Department of Innovation, Industry, Science and Research (DIISR)

Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs (MCEETYA)

States and Territories

Note that all States have Technical and Further Education (TAFE) agencies within their departments of education. The Northern Territory is an exception. In NT, the public provision of TVET is shared between the university sector and the Bachelor Institute of Indigenous Tertiary Education.

ACT

ACT Department of Education and Training

ACT Board of Senior Secondary Studies

New South Wales

NSW Department of Education and Training

Board of Studies NSW

Vocational Education Training and Accreditation Board

Northern Territory

Northern Territory Department of Employment, Education and Training

NT Board of Studies

Queensland

Queensland Department of Education and the Arts

Queensland Studies Authority (for Syllabus Development and Certification)

South Australia

Department of Education and Children’s Services

Senior Secondary Assessment Board of South Australia (SSABSA)

Tasmania

Department of Education

Tasmanian Qualifications Authority

Victoria

Department of Education and Early Childhood Development

The Victorian Registration and Qualifications Authority

The Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority

Western Australia

Department of Education and Training

f) Associations and networks

Australian Council for Computing in Education (ACCE)

Australasian Council on Open, Distance and e-Learning (ACODE)

Australasian Association of Distance Education Schools (AADES)

Australasian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education (ASCILITE)

Higher Education Research and Development Society of Australasia (HERDSA)

Open and Distance Learning Association of Australia (ODLAA)

Universities Australia (formerly the Australian Vice-Chancellors’ Committee)

g) Distance Educationjournals

Australasian Journal of Educational Technology

Australian Educational Computing

Australian Journal of Adult Learning

Distance Education

Education in Rural Australia

Impact: Journal of Applied Research in Workplace E learning

Training and Development in Australia

Australasian Journal of Educational Technology (AJET)

Interesting Distance Education Initiatives

Open Universities Australia (OUA) is owned by a consortium of Australian universities: Curtin University Griffith University, Macquarie University, Monash University, RMIT, Swinburne University of Technology and the University of South Australia. In addition, OUA sources credit courses and units from ten other providers. These include TAFE South Australia, the Central Gippsland Institute of TAFE (GippsTAFE), Polytechnic West and the Australian Computer Society, as well as six public and private Australian universities. OUA is a trend-setter in online higher education within Australia, as all its programs are online. In addition, most of OUA's first-level undergraduate units have no entry requirements. The institution provides courses in a wide variety of subjects: Arts & Humanities, Business, Education, Health, IT, Law and Justice, and Science and Engineering. Programs are available at a range of levels. These begin at Certificate IV vocational courses to Masters level postgraduate qualifications. OUA offers a range of preparatory programs: flexible, non-credit UNILEARN bringing units, enabling units which focus on developing traditional study skills, units to help NESB students prepare for IELTS test, and Learning Skills units. The latter are designed to equip students to meet the particular demands of online study by distance.

Perhaps no institution better exemplifies Australian enthusiasm for innovative solutions in distance education than the School of the Air. The School of the Air represents an Australian response to the tyranny of distance in a large, thinly populated nation. During the early 20^th century, students living in isolated parts of the country’s interior undertook studies by correspondence. Extremely poor communications in the outback meant that the results were often unsatisfactory. The idea for the School of the Air was born in 1946. In that year, Adelaide Miethke of the Royal Flying Doctor Service (RFDS) in South Australia observed that outback children were all taught to use the RFDS radio service. She realised that this skill could easily be turned to educational advantage. In 1948, the Alice Springs RFDS base was used to broadcast the first school lessons to local children. The first School of the Air (SOA) was launched two years later, using short-wave radio and correspondence to provide lessons to students in remote stations and isolated communities. In 1956, the SOA program spread to New South Wales, other States following by the late 1960s. Shortwave radio has been replaced by telephone, fax, high frequency (HF) radio and satellite-based Internet access, the last technology permitting email and interactive Web-based video. The 12 Schools of the Air in Australia follow the State or Territory curriculum.

Quality Assurance

Tertiary Education Quality & Standards Agency (TEQSA) (to be established by 2011 and will incorporate AUQA)

Australian Universities Quality Authority (AUQA)

Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) Advisory Board

The Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) sets out a unified national system of qualifications across secondary schools, private TVET providers, and Technical and Further Education colleges (TAFEs). Working within the AQF framework are the state and territory level regulatory and quality assurance authorities. These are responsible for the accreditation of non-government training providers as Registered Training Organisations. There are also a number of professional organisations responsible for accreditation in specialised fields.

Quality assurance activities at the institutional level are overseen by the Australian Universities Quality Agency (AUQA). AUQA is an independent national agency that promotes, audits, and reports on quality assurance in Australian higher education. One of AUQA’s main tasks is to undertake periodic audits of Australian universities and other institutions of higher education. AUQA also periodically audits the quality assurance processes of State, Territory and Commonwealth higher education accreditation authorities. AUQA is part of the Ministerial Council for Tertiary Education and Employment (MCTEE), a body comprising Commonwealth, State and Territory ministers with responsibility for tertiary education and employment.

Regulatory and Policy Framework

Australia has a well-developed regulatory framework. Each state or territory has its own education department with direct responsibility for the delivery of public education. All non-government schools must be registered with the state or territory education department and are subject to regular inspection. In general, non-government schools follow the same curricula as government schools and conform to identical standards in terms of infrastructure and teacher registration.

At present, Australian universities are largely self-regulated, save where they provide vocational-level programs. Each of the Australian public universities has been established by a separate Act of Parliament, which allows the university to self-accredit most courses and programs. For historical reasons, most of these Acts have been passed by the Parliaments of the States and Territories.

a) International regulatory and policy frameworks

AUQA is a member of the Asia-Pacific Quality Network (APQN) and the

International Network for Quality Assurance Agencies in Higher Education (INQAAHE)

b) Regional agreements

None.

c) National regulations and policy

There is a significant body of Commonwealth legislation in the area of education and training. Only the major recent Commonwealth Acts are listed here:

Australian National Training Authority Act (1992)

Education Services for Overseas Students (ESOS) Act (2000)

Commonwealth Register of Institutions and Courses for Overseas Students (CRISCOS) Act (1999)

Higher Education Support Act (2003)

Skilling Australia’s Workforce Act (2005)

Skills Australia Act (2008)

Shaping Our Future: Australia's national strategy for vocational education and training 2004-2010 (2003)

Transforming Australia's higher education system (2009)

An education revolution for Australia's future (2009)

Melbourne declaration on educational goals for young Australians (2008)

MCEETYA Four Year Plan, 2009–2012: Companion document for the Melbourne Declaration (2009)

Skills' Australia foundations for the future (2009)

Digital Education Revolution Strategic Plan (2008)

National Professional Standards for Teachers Draft 2010

d) State/District regulations and policy

The Parliaments of each State and Territory regulate to control educational delivery within its boundaries. Each State or Territory has its own Education Act (or equivalent) and extensive legislation relating to public and private TVET provision.

It is possible only to give an idea of the range of legislation at the State and Territory level. The NSW Department of Education & Training alone is currently responsible for the administration of the following pieces of State legislation:

Education Act (1990)

Teaching Service Act (1980)

Teaching Service Regulation (2007)

Parents and Citizens Associations Incorporation Act (1976)

Commission for Children and Young People Act (1998)

Children and Young Persons (Care and Protection) Act (1998)

Institute of Teachers Act (2004)

Education (School Administrative and Support Staff) Act (1987)

Education (School Administrative and Support Staff) Regulation (2008)

TAFE Act (1990)

Vocational Education and Training Act (2005)

In addition, the NSW Parliament has passed a number of Acts relating to universities situated within the State. The major Acts in force are:

Australian Catholic University Act (1990)

Charles Sturt University Act (1989)

Macquarie University Act (1989)

Southern Cross University Act (1993)

University of New England Act (1993)

University of New South Wales Act (1989)

University of Newcastle Act (1989)

University of Sydney Act (1989)

University of Technology, Sydney, Act (1989)

University of Western Sydney Act (1997)

University of Wollongong Act (1989)

e) University policies

During recent years, the higher education sector has experienced a rapid change in the policy environment. Successive governments have placed increasing emphasis on outcomes and efficiency. Australian universities are therefore under growing pressure to deliver higher quality research outputs, as well as continuously improve their teaching and learning. Faced with these rising demands, many universities across Australia have radically revised their operational models. There has been an increased trend toward managerialism, as university decision-makers seek to strengthen their ability to respond to demands from Commonwealth agencies.

The Excellence in Research for Australia (ERA) initiative is one aspect of the Commonwealth Government’s renewed emphasis on research quality. The ERA aims to provide a transparent system to assess research quality, utilising a combination of research metrics and expert review committees. ERA will detail areas within universities and disciplines that are internationally competitive, as well as point to emerging areas where there are opportunities for development and further investment. ERA rankings are expected to have a major impact on institutional prestige and the allocation of resources and funding.

Another reform proposal with radical implications is the establishment of a national Tertiary Education and Quality Standards Agency (TEQSA). From 2012, this agency will be responsible quality assurance across the Australian higher education sector. TEQSA will register and evaluate the performance of public and private higher education providers against the new Higher Education Standards Framework. Public universities which currently have the authority to self-accredit courses and programs will lose this authority, which will be automatically transferred to TEQSA. The new quality assurance model has some benefits for universities: those who are able to meet the new quality performance criteria and equity outcomes will be receive additional funding.